Famous Scientists and their Contribution!
1. Enrico Fermi (Inventor of Nuclear Reactor):
Enrico Fermi is known as the father of nuclear physics. He is so called because he was the first person who discovered the chain- reactions. This great physicist was born in Rome. He was a very brilliant student. At the age of 21, he obtained his Ph.D. degree in the field of x-rays from the University of Pisa.
In 1927, he was appointed as a lecturer of physics in Rome University. He was so brilliant that he was elected a member of Italian Academy in 1929. This is the highest Italian honour in academics. In 1934, after a 10 years arduous research, he made a fundamental discovery in the field of Physics. He discovered that when the element is bombarded by a slow moving neutron, it becomes radioactive and starts emitting radiations. In this process, one element changes into the other element. In 1933, he discovered a fundamental particle named neutrino. Fermi produced 80 new artificial nuclei by neutron bombardment.
At that time, chaos was prevailing in Italy as the country was under the dictatorship of Mussolini. This directly affected Fermi because his wife was a Jewish. Fortunately, he was invited for a lecture at Columbia University, USA. He went to America along with his family and never returned to Italy. In 1938, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics. In 1939, he was appointed as a professor of physics in the Columbia University and became a US citizen in 1944.
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The following incident of Fermi’s life is very famous. It shows how he was totally absorbed in his experimental work. Once, Fermi was on his way to.an adjoining room to bring an instrument for an experiment. Meanwhile, a stranger came to meet him. On coming across Professor Fermi, the visitor told him that he wanted to see Professor Fermi. Professor Fermi’s mind was so much involved in his experiment that he asked the man to wait for some time in the room, promising to send the Professor to him shortly. After this, he went to his room, finished his experiment and came back to the stranger, “I am Fermi. What can I do for you?” The visitor surprised at Fermi’s devotion to Science.
In Columbia University, he started his work on the controlled nuclear chain reactions. He succeeded in splitting the uranium nuclei by the bombardment of neutrons. On this basis, in 1942, after several years of hard work, he designed the first nuclear reactor in Chicago. In this reactor, he generated the energy by nuclear fission. This thrilled the entire scientific world. People said – “The Italian navigator has landed in the New World.”
Meanwhile, in Berlin, Otto Hahm and Fritz Strassmann were trying to prove that Fermi was, in fact, splitting the uranium atom into too much lighter atoms by his neutron bombardment. A group of Fermi’s colleagues persuaded Albert Einstein to write to President Roosevelt, drawing his attention to the fact that “extremely powerful bombs of a new type” might be made in this way, and hinted that the Germans might already be engaged in the development of the bomb. The President gave his approval and immediately sanctioned a large sum of money to enable Fermi’s team to begin secret work on the development of an atom bomb.
After Fermi successfully completed ‘Manhattan Project’, he went to Los Alamos, New Mexico, to work on the actual atomic bomb. This bomb was tested successfully on 16th July 1945. These were later dropped by America on two Japanese cities, Hiroshima and Nagasaki, during World War II. This brought an immediate end to the prolonged War.
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After World War II, Fermi joined the faculty at the University of Chicago where the Institute for Nuclear Studies was named after him. He was regarded as a gifted teacher as well as a research scientist. He wrote many textbooks on various aspects of physics.
In the recognition of his scientific achievements, Fermi was awarded the Medal of Merit by the Congress of the United States on 19th March 1946. He was at the peak of his fame when he died, barely 53 years old, in 1954. In his honour, the element called Fermium has been named after him. An award called ‘Fermi Award’ was also instituted in his honour and is awarded for outstanding work in science in the USA.
Today, in many countries around the world there are nuclear reactors which are being used for isotope production and power generation. All these reactors, although little modified, are based on the fundamental principles formulated by Enrico Fermi.
2. J. Robert Oppenheimer (The Father of Atom Bomb):
No one can forget July 16, Monday, 1945 when the first atom bomb of the world was tested at 5.30 a.m. For testing this atom bomb, the northern desert, some 200 miles away from Los Alames in the U.S.A., was selected as the site. A 100 foot high metal tower weighing 32 tonnes was mounted on a hill on which the atom bomb was placed. More than 1000 spectators were present at a safe distance from the site to see the testing of the bomb. The bomb was exploded at the scheduled time. A terrible sound and intense light were produced. Oppenheimer, sitting in the control room at a distance of nine miles, felt the heat of the bomb. When the bomb exploded a 40,000 feet high mushroom shaped cloud was formed.
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The metal tower totally disappeared from the site. Even the place below the tower melted and was converted into glass. All animals in one square mile were found dead. Even snakes and other underground reptiles died due to the heat of the explosion. Up to a distance of 20 to 30 miles, animals’ hairs were found completely burnt. The light of this explosion was seen even 450 miles away. After seeing the terrible impact of this explosion the whole world was shocked. This atom bomb was made and tested under the supervision of Oppenheimer.
Meanwhile, World War II was in full swing and Japan was not ready to surrender. Americans dropped an atom bomb on August 6, 1945 at Hiroshima, in Japan. This bomb was equivalent to 20 kiloton of T.M.T. and was dropped from a height of 1800 feet. The devastating impact of this bomb killed 80,000 people and injured about 70,000. The city was almost ruined. As if not satiated with the cruelty and destruction caused by this bomb, the Americans dropped another bomb made of plutonium on August 9 at Nagasaki, another city of Japan.
This bomb killed 40,000 and injured about 25,000 people. Such a big destruction compelled Japan to surrender unconditionally on August 10, 1945. This scene of devastation gave a big jolt to Oppenheimer, and he submitted his resignation from Los Alamos.
As a matter of fact, Oppenheimer neither made the atom bomb, nor did he develop the formula for making it. The development of the atom bomb was the result of joint efforts of several scientists. But, since Oppenheimer was the president of the team engaged in making the atom bomb, he began to be known as the father of the atom bomb. The other scientists, involved in the development of the atom bomb were Otto Han, Compton, Fermi, Szilard, Albert Einstein, etc.
Oppenheimer was born in New York city on April 22, 1904. His parents were of German origin, but had settled in the United States. His family was rich and educated. Oppenheimer was very intelligent student. Once, when he was five years old, his grandfather gave him some rock pieces. This evoked in him an interest in geology. His mother taught him painting and music. He wanted to become a sculptor, but, at the age of seven, he started writing poems. His most favourite toy was microscope with which he would examine soup drops and identify bacteria.
Oppenheimer was educated in very good schools where he developed his personality as a self-reliant man. He learnt French, Spanish, Italian and Greek languages. When he was twelve, he was invited to give a talk in a club. At first, he became quite nervous and told his father he was not well. But when his father advised him not to be afraid, he went to deliver the talk which was related to the rocks of Manhattan. The talk was highly appreciated and was published in the magazine of the club.
When he was 17, his parents migrated to the U.S.A. Oppenheimer graduated in physics from Harvard University in 1925. In the university, he broke all the previous records. His professors would remark about him that he would, one day, either revolutionize physics or the world. And he brought revolutions to both. After graduation from Harvard, he went to Cambridge and did research at Cavendish Laboratory. There he worked under Professor J.J. Thomson. In 1929, he came to California University and was appointed Associate Professor in 1931. Here he conducted many experiments in nuclear physics.
In 1941, he joined the American project on the development of the atom bomb. In 1942, he was appointed the project coordinator. During the same year, he was appointed the Chief Science director of the Manhattan Project. In 1943, he supervised the team in Los Alamos, which was deputed to make the atom bomb. Under the guidance and supervision of Oppenheimer, scientists worked day and night and successfully made the atom bomb and tested it on July 16, 1945.
When World War II was over, Oppenheimer resigned from Los Alamos, but, in 1947 again, he was made the Chairman of the ‘Atomic Energy Commission. In 1950, he was given the special honour for his contributions to war programmes. In 1963, he was presented the Enrico Fermi Award of the Atomic Energy Commission. This is the highest award for scientific contributions in the U.S.A. Oppenheimer died in 1967 at Princeton.
3. Satyendra Nath Bose (Discoverer of Bose-Einstein Statistics):
Today most students of physics and mathematics in higher classes study Bose-Einstein statistics. This new type of statistics was evolved by Satyendra Nath Bose, the National Professor of India. The particles to which this statistics is applicable are named Bosons after him. This statistics is applicable to identical and indistinguishable particles. In higher studies, this statistics has a place of its own.
S.N. Bose was born in Calcutta, and was the son of a railway official Surendranath Bose. There is an interesting episode which gives a glimpse into his genius. In school, he once obtained 110 marks out of 100 in the mathematics paper, because he had solved some sums in more than one way. His teacher predicted that he would one day become a great mathematician. His rival classmates knew that they would not get the first position in the university as long as S.N. Bose was there in the class. Because of this fear, quite a few of his class mates changed their subjects and some even did not appear in the examination that year. In 1915 S.N. Bose topped the Calcutta University. In the same year, he translated Einstein’s “Theory of Relativity” from German to English.
In 1916, after completing his post-graduation, he was appointed a lecturer of Physics in Dacca University. In the same year, because World War I was at its peak, the researches done in Europe were not being published. Meanwhile, many investigations were going on in the field of Nuclear Physics.
S.N. Bose kept contacts with Devender Nath Bose through letters to keep abreast with latest developments. D.N. Bose was, at that time doing research on magnetism in Germany, but due to onset of the War, was stuck up there.
In 1921, S.N. Bose became a reader of physics in Dacca University. In 1923, he submitted his research paper on the derivation of Planks Equation to a British journal, The Philosophical Magazine. The referee rejected his paper and did not recommend it for publication. Bose was not disheartened due to the rejection of his paper. He was confident that his work was of high standard. Bose sent his rejected paper to the world famous scientist Albert Einstein for his comments.
Einstein read his paper and wrote back to Bose that his work was an important contribution in mathematics. Einstein himself translated this paper in German and got it published in ‘Zeit fur Physik’. After the publication of this paper in 1924, he became a man of world fame, and his name became associated with the great scientist Einstein. This paper marked a beginning of a new type of statistics called Bose-Einstein Statistics.
To relate an interesting incident from – Bose’s life, when he sent an application to Dacca University for the post of a professor, the officials of the university told him that he did not have the degree of Ph.D. or D.Sc. essential for that post. They asked him to bring a certificate from Einstein that his work was of Ph.D. standard. When S.N. Bose wrote to Einstein for it, Einstein replied – “Your countrymen do not believe that the work published is much above the standard of a D.Sc. degree.”
In 1924, S.N. Bose went to Paris on study leave to carry out some research under Madame Curie. There he spent 10 months working with Madame Curie and Louis de Broglie. ‘From there Bose went to Berlin where Einstein accorded him a warm welcome. There he had discussions with the world’s renowned scientists such as Planck, Schrodinger, Pauli, Heisenberg and Sommerfield. Bose adopted Einstein as his Guru in the oriental tradition, though he never had any occasion to work with him.
From Berlin, Bose came back to Dacca and was appointed Professor and Head of the Department of Physics. In 1945, he left Dacca and joined the University Science College in Calcutta as Professor of Physics. After his retirement in 1956, he was appointed the Vice-Chancellor of the Vishvabharati University. In all, he published around 24 papers on various aspects of Physics.
Bose was very affectionate to his students. He would often help his students financially. He would chat for hours with friends and students on almost various subjects every evening. He was as much interested in solving crossword puzzles as complicated problems of physics and mathematics.
After his retirement from Vishvabharati University, he was appointed a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1958. In the same year he was also awarded Padma Vibhushan by the Government of India and was made the National Professor. In his old age, Bose went on pilgrimage to many scientific institutions of the country and gave useful tips to scientists. On 4th February 1974, he died in Calcutta.
4. PrafuIIa Chandra Ray (Inventor of Medicinal Compound from Waste Cattle Bones):
People knew him only as a college lecturer and scientist. Nobody was aware that he was heading towards a new invention in his laboratory at his house where he did experiments by dumping cattle bones he had brought from the butcher. Neighbours often complained about the unbearable odours that had often been carried to them by the breeze from his laboratory.
It was a usual scene in which one can notice crows littering houses all round with bones. On several occasions he was asked by his neighbours to take away the bones heaped by him as they could no longer withstand the smell from the rotting bones. Finally, he was asked by his neighbours to clear the collection of bones failing which they would call the municipal authorities.
It was at this juncture he was rescued by his friend who offered him a piece of land for dumping his collection of bones.
One evening when he found that the bones had dried, he made a bonfire in order to conduct some experiments. Attracted by the flames, police arrived there to enquire about its cause and Ray had a tough time to convince them that he was not a murderer and that it was not human bones that were being burnt.
He did not stop with the experiment of burning the bones. He treated the ashes of the bones with sulphuric acid in his laboratory. When the superphosphate of lime thus produced was mixed with soda, a solution of phosphate of soda was formed. This was then put into a large basin and boiled, which produced lumps of phosphate of sola crystals. The young man took a little of that and chewed it. By this process he converted the waste cattle bones into a chemical compound from which a medicinal compound could be made.
This product was comparatively cheaper than the imported one available in the market and was also more effective. The young scientist started producing the tonic on a large scale. Though the druggists hesitated to keep this country made medicine, it became popular on account of the best efforts of doctors who knew the effectiveness of the tonic.
Gradually his research started expanding and lead to the beginning of the present Bengal Chemical and Pharmaceutical Works, now one of the biggest chemical firms in the country.
The young scientist is none other than Prafulla Chandra Ray who is recognised as the father of India’s chemical industry. He not only developed centres of research, but also arranged facilities for training brilliant young chemists and thus placed India in a top ranking position in the world of chemistry.
Whenever Ray got spare time he conducted experiments in his laboratory at home. He first took to the production of citric acid from lemon and citron which proved to be a failure. Then phosphate of soda attracted his attention and with his ‘cattle bones experiment’ he eventually succeeded in setting up this industry which began to grow in the country.
Ray was born on August 2, 1861 at Rurli-Katipara now in Bangladesh in a cultured family. He diverted his attention from literature to science after he read Benjamin Franklin’s autobiography. He was thrilled by the Franklin’s famous ‘kite experiment’ to know the lightning. He was also well versed in politics, economics and English apart from proficiency in various other languages.
He remained unmarried throughout his life and took active pan in politics. His main contribution to chemistry was the discovery of mercurons nitrite in 1896 and also the extraction of its several derivates. His contributions in the field of Chemistry have been widely acclaimed.
5. Wilhelm Konrad Roentgen (Discoverer of X-Rays):
Today, the widespread use of X-rays has made an astounding impact on the whole world. X-rays were discovered by Prof. Wilhelm Konrad Roentgen of Germany in 1895, when he was 50 years old. Since Roentgen, at that time did not know what these rays were; he just called them X-rays, X devoting an unknown factor. These are also called ‘Roentgen rays’. Prof. Roentgen was awarded the first Nobel Prize of Physics in 1901 for this wonderful discovery.
The story behind the discovery of X-rays is very interesting. One day, Prof. Roentgen was experimenting with electric discharge of gases in a partially evacuated glass tube (cathode ray tube) in his laboratory. There was complete darkness in the room, and the cathode ray tube was covered with a black paper. While experimenting, Roentgen observed that a crystal of barium platinocyanide, lying near the cathode ray tube, emitted fluorescence when the tube was in operation. He theorized that some unknown rays were passing through the covered walls of the tube which, on interacting with the crystal, caused fluorescence. Roentgen was thrilled at this discovery.
He found that these rays could pass through paper, wood and thin foils of metals. These rays were just like the light rays, but of very short wavelengths not visible to human eye.
Later, an important, but simple idea came to his mind. He thought when ordinary light could affect the photographic plates these rays should also be able to affect them. For experimental evidence, Roentgen placed his wife’s hand on a photographic plate and passed X-rays through it. When the photographic plate was developed, both husband and wife were stunned to see the result. On the plate were clearly pictured the bones of the hand with outlines of the surrounding flesh. Roentgen’s wife was wearing a ring on her finger which was also visible. This was the first time when a photograph of the skeleton of a living being was taken.
Roentgen, the discoverer of X-rays and his two co-workers, who worked for the development of X-rays, died because of the hazardous effects of X-rays on them. Although these rays are very useful in revealing the body’s ailments, these are, at the same time, very harmful if used in excess.
Wilhelm Roentgen was born at Lennep in Germany. His father, a farmer had married a Dutch woman. He completed his early education in Holland, and carried on higher studies in Zurich University, Switzerland. From this university, at the age of 24, he got his Ph.D. degree. He did teaching work in many universities. In 1885, he was appointed the Professor of physics at the University of Wirzburg. It was in this place that Roentgen discovered X-rays.
X-rays are not used for merely taking the photograph of bones. These are also used in treating cancer and other diseases. X-rays are used to examine the diseases of lungs, and the presence of stones in the kidney and gall-bladder. With the help of these rays, gold and other valuable gems hidden in the body can be detected easily. With these rays, it is very easy to distinguish between natural and synthetic diamonds.
X-rays are also used to determine the structure of crystals. These are also used to detect cracks and bubbles in iron bars used for constructing bridges and buildings. A diagnostic machine called CAT scanner, using X-rays, has been evolved and is very popular and useful for the diagnosis of various diseases in the human body. In fact, X-rays discovered by Roentgen are being put to more and more uses not only in the medical field but also in various other areas.
Apart from the discovery of X-rays Roentgen conducted research in other field such as elasticity, capillary action of fluid, specific heats of gases, conduction of heat in crystals, absorption of heat by gases and piezoelectricity. Towards the end of the 19th century, Roentgen moved from Wiezburg to Munich. This great man of physics died at the age of 77 in Munich.