Read this article we will discuss about:- 1. Steps of Report Writing 2. Formatting Considerations for Writing a Research Report 3. Technical Methods for Writing a Research Report 4. Ordering the Questions 5. Precautions for Writing Research Reports.
Steps of Report Writing:
Research report is the product of slow, painstaking, accurate inductive work.
The usual following steps involved in writing report are as given below:
Step 1:
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Analysing the task:
As with any assignment task you must first analyse what is expected of you. This involves careful reading of the assignment task as outlined in your course information book.
You may find the following questions useful when analysing the task:
a. What is the purpose of the report? Are you, for example, analysing or persuading or reporting on an investigation?
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b. Who is the audience for the report?
c. What is the word limit? (Most times the word limit only includes the body of the report).
d. What is the topic of the report? Sometimes the topic is specified by the lecturer, other times you will have a choice.
e. What is the expected format of the report?
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Step 2:
Developing a rough plan:
a. Use the section headings (outlined above) to assist with your rough plan.
b. Write a thesis statement that clarifies the overall purpose of your report.
c. Note down anything you already know about the topic in the relevant section.
Step 3:
Doing the research:
Steps one and two above will guide your research for this report. You may need to report on other research on a particular topic or do some research of your own. Keep referring to your analysis and rough plan while you are doing your research to ensure that you remain on track.
Give yourself plenty of time for this step, as the research phase of your work will usually take the most time of any step in producing your report. Also ensure you keep correct bibliographic details for all of the material you may later use in your report.
Step 4:
Drafting the body of your report.
Preparing the Draft:
Preparation of reports is time consuming and expensive. Thus, you while writing your report should ensure that they are very sharply focused in purpose, content and readership.
To control the final outcome of your product – whether it is a research report, committee/consulting/administrative report or a student report -I advise that you precede it with a proposal/draft and its acceptance or modification and periodic interim reports and their acceptance or modification by your sponsor.
Your proposal should provide information on the following items as given below:
i. Descriptive title of your study,
ii. Your name as the author and your background,
iii. Nature of your study,
iv. Problem to be examined,
v. Need for the study,
vi. Background information available,
vii. Scope of study,
viii. To whom will it be useful?
ix. Hypothesis, if any, to be tested,
x. Data,
xi. Sources,
xii. Collection procedure,
xiii. Methodology for analysis,
xiv. Equipment and facilities required,
xv. Schedule-target dates for completing,
xvi. Library research.
xvii. Primary research,
xviii. Data analysis,
xix. Outline of the report,
xx. First draft,
xxi. Final draft,
xxii. Likely product or tentative outline,
xxiii. Bibliography.
Reviewing the Draft:
To error is human. Therefore, after you have prepared your draft report, it should be thoroughly reviewed and edited before the final report is submitted. Let us now try to make a checklist that will help you in reviewing the draft.
(i) Your purpose as the author.
(ii) Reader’s profile.
(iii) Content.
(iv) Language and tone.
(v) Length.
(vi) Appearance.
(i) Author’s Purpose:
The lack of clarity and explicitness in the communication process leads to two major problems:
a. Confusion in determining the mix of content, language and tone.
b. Misinterpretation of the message.
Therefore, try to use a simple, easy to read style and presentation that will help your reader to understand the content easily.
(ii) Reader’s Profile:
Readership may consist of one or more persons or groups. You would, therefore, need to check whether all of them have the same wavelength. If not, common interest areas will need to be segregated from the special interest areas. Then you will need to decide on the types and parts of the report that can satisfy the various reader groups. The major discriminating features of the readers profile is culture, religion, ideologies, age, education and economic background.
(iii) Content:
Please pay attention to the content’s focus, its organisation, and accuracy of facts and logic of arguments.
a. You should clarify the focus right in the first few paragraphs to attract the reader’s attention and hold it.
b. If any material is added or deleted in the text, recheck the focus to see whether you need to make any changes in the foundation
c. Keep in mind that you may loose credibility if you fail to check for the accuracy of the facts, for a reader can easily test internal consistency of the report by comparing information across pages and sections.
d. Not all the data that is required to make the report may be available. Sometimes you may need to make assumptions to fill the gaps.
e. What is good in one situation may not hold for another.
Therefore, please list and arrange the elements and the actors of a situation to understand its dynamics.
(iv) Language and Tone:
Since the purpose of communication is to make the reader understand the message, use vocabulary and sentence structure which the reader understands. Abstract phrases are difficult to comprehend while concrete phrases are easy to understand. Finally, the tone of the language also matters. It can make the reader receive, ignore or reject the message.
(v) Length:
This is a matter that needs to be judged by you as the author keeping in mind the purpose, subject and the reader’s interest. Usually, shorter the content, the more attractive it is to the reader.
However, it should not be so brief as to miss the essential points and linkages in the flow of arguments and force the reader to ask for more information.
(vi) Appearance:
The novelty of presentation is as important as the originality of ideas. Both are products of creativity. Presentation attracts readers and content holds their attention. Hence, pay complete attention to both the product and its packaging.
Proof-Reading:
If you or another person proof-reading your report is good, he should have the accuracy to pin point all the mistakes, clarity in giving instructions to the printer and speed for meeting the printer’s deadline.
i. Make sure that you indicate correction marks at two places.
ii. Within the line where the correction is to be carried out.
iii. In the margin against the corresponding line giving the instruction.
iv. Please, never give instructions at the place of correction.
v. You should mark the proof preferably with a red ball point.
vi. To catch as many errors as possible read it over and over again.
vii. One last point. Always remember that proofs are meant to be corrected not edited.
Final Printing:
Once you have thoroughly proof read your report, you should:
i. Return it to the printer according to the agreed schedule.
ii. Also return the manuscript along with.
iii. Upon printing, your final document is ready for reference.
Format of a Report:
No matter which category your report falls into, when you make one, make sure that it contains each of the following parts:
i. A cover and title page.
ii. Introductory pages.
iii. Foreword.
iv. Preface.
v. Acknowledgement.
vi. Table of contents.
vii. List of tables and illustrations.
viii. Summary.
ix. Text.
x. Headings.
xi. Quotations.
xii. Titles of articles.
xiii. Footnotes.
xiv. Exhibits.
xv. Tables.
xvi. Illustrations.
xvii. Reference section.
xviii. Appendixes.
xix. Bibliography.
xx. Glossary (if required).
We will now discuss each of these at length:
1. Cover and the Title Page:
The detail of the format of a report are explained. However, let’s try to list them down again:
a. Title of the subject or project.
b. Presented to whom.
c. On what date.
d. For what purpose.
e. Written by whom.
If there is any restriction on the circulation of the report that has been made, it should indicate it on the top right corner of the cover and title page.
2. Introductory Pages:
Every time you open any book introduction is the first thing that you will come across. While writing such pages for your report, number them in lower case, Roman Numerals (i, ii, iii…). Use Arabic Numerals (1, 2, 3…) from the first page of the introduction, Make sure that your introductory pages contain.
3. Foreword:
This is not numbered but counted among the introductory pages. It would be written by someone other than you, usually an authority on the subject or the sponsor of the research or the book. At the end of the foreword, your name as the writer would appear on the right side. On the left come address, place of writing and date, which are put in italics.
4. Preface:
It has to be written by you to indicate how the subject was chosen, its importance and need and the focus of the book’s and research papers content, purpose and audience. Your name will appear at the end of the preface on the right side. On the left would be your address, place of writing and date, which you should put in italics.
5. Acknowledgement:
As a courtesy, you should give due credit to anyone else whose efforts were instrumental in your writing the report. Such recognition will form the acknowledgement. If it is short, It has been suggest that you treat it as a part of the preface, if not you may put it in a separate section. At the end of the acknowledgement obviously only your name would appear on the right side and in italics.
6. Table of Contents:
The content sheet of your report would act as both a summary and a guide to the various segments of your report. You should ensure that it covers all the essential parts of the book/ report and yet is brief enough to be clear and attractive.
Have a look at the sample that has been explained for better understanding:
7. List of Tables and Illustrations:
After your table of contents, you should give a list that mentions the details and page numbers of the various tables and illustrations that you may have used to support your report. Each list should start on a separate page. You should number the tables and illustrations continuously in a serial order throughout the book/report. Usually keep them in Arabic numerals or decimal form.
8. Summary:
The executive summary that you would write in the initial pages is usually of great help to a busy reader.
The summary should highlight the following essential information:
i. What is the study about?
ii. What is the extent and limitation of the coverage?
iii. What is the significance and need for the study?
iv. What is the kind of data used?
v. What research methodology has been used?
vi. What are the findings and conclusions?
vii. What are the incidental findings, if any?
viii. How can the conclusions be used and by whom?
ix. What are the recommendations and the suggested action LAN?
9. Text:
The subject matter of the text of your report should be divided into the following.
10. Headings:
Heading is very simple to understand as all have been used the classification right from their secondary school days.
Just as a refresher, I am mentioning the classifications once again:
i. Center head.
ii. Center sub-head.
iii. Side head.
iv. Paragraph head.
v. Which combination of headings you would use would depend on the number of classifications or divisions.
11. Quotations:
There may be times when you feel that you need to reproduce a portion of the work of another author to add value to your own report. This is meant by quotation. Quotation marks must necessarily use for a directly quoted passage or word a word or phrase to be emphasised.
12. Titles of Articles:
i. While quoting, be very careful that all quotations should correspond exactly to the original in word, spelling and punctuation. You may allow quotations up to three typewritten lines to run into the text.
ii. Direct quotations over this limit have to be set in indented paragraphs.
13. Footnotes:
When you insert quotations, it is important that you indicate the source of the reference. This is what you may do using the footnotes. Also, there may be times when you might want to provide an explanation that is not important enough to be included in the text. Again, the footnote would be of use to you for this.
Please ensure that explanatory footnotes are put at the bottom of the page and are linked to the text with a footnote number. But you must incorporate source references within the text and supplement them with a bibliographical note.
Footnotes would help the reader to check the accuracy of the interpretation of the source by going to the source if they want to. They are also a form of your acknowledgement of the indebtedness to the source. They help the reader distinguish between your contribution as the author of the report and the work of others.
14. Exhibits:
Writing just theory about any subject matter would never be sufficient. You will need to supplement it with exhibits for better and faster understanding by the reader.
15. Table:
Before you introduce a table make sure that it is referred to in the text. It is meant only to expand, clarify or give visual explanation, rather than stand by itself. The text should highlight the table’s focus and conclusions. All differences are significant at the 5% level or better except that between the last two means in the column.
16. Illustrations:
They cover charts graphs, diagrams and maps.
17. Reference Section:
This section will follow the text. First write out the appendices section, then the bibliography and finally the glossary. Students, please ensure that a divider page on which only the words Appendices, Bibliography or Glossary appear in all capital letters separates each section.
18. Appendices:
They will help you, as the author of the report, to authenticate the thesis and help your reader to check the data. Let us now try to list out the material that you would usually put in the appendices.
a. Original data.
b. Long tables.
c. Supportive legal decisions, laws, documents.
d. Long quotations.
e. Supportive legal decisions, laws, documents.
f. Illustrative material.
g. Questionnaires and letters.
h. Extensive computations.
i. Schedules or forms that you might have used in collecting data.
j. Case studies.
k. Transcripts of interviews.
19. Bibliographies:
It would follow the appendices and make sure that it is listed as a major section in your table of contents. It should contain the source of every reference cited in the footnote and any other relevant work that you had consulted. This would give the reader an idea of the literature available on the subject and that has influenced or aided your study.
If you try to look up the bibliographical section of any book or report, you would see that the following information is given for each reference:
a. Name of the Author.
b. Title of His Work.
c. Place of Publication.
d. Name of the Publisher.
e. Date of Publication.
f. Number of Pages.
For example:
Kumar, Anil (2004): Performance and modelling of blood flow in elastic Artery. PP-1482-1490. Mathematical and Computer modeling, Elsevier Publication, U.S.A.
20. Glossary:
Finally we come to a short dictionary giving definitions and examples of terms and phrases, which are technical, used by you in a special connotation, unfamiliar to the reader, or foreign to the language in which the book is written.
It was something very general and away from the usual theory. However, it was necessary to formally list down the steps of report writing because as we mentioned, these reports are very critical in decision-making whether in academics (for performance review), research (as base for further reference) or an organisation (to decide the future course of action).
Formatting Considerations for Writing a Research Report:
Are you writing a research report that you will submit for publication in a journal? If so, you should be aware that every journal requires articles that you follow specific formatting guidelines. Thinking of writing a note book. Again, every publisher will require specific formatting. Writing a term paper? Most faculties will require that you follow specific guidelines. Doing your thesis or dissertation? Every university I know of has very strict policies about formatting and style.
There are legendary stories that circulate among graduate students about the dissertation that was rejected because the page margins were a quarter inch off or the figures weren’t labelled correctly. To illustrate what a set of research report specifications might include, this section presents a general guidelines for the formatting of a research write-up for a class term paper.
These guidelines are very similar to the types of specifications you might be required to follow for a journal article. However, you need to check the specific formatting guidelines for the report you are writing—the ones presented here are likely to differ in some ways from any other guidelines that may be required in other contexts.
A sample research paper has also been included to write-up that illustrates these guidelines. This sample paper is for a “make-believe” research project. But it illustrates how a final research report might look using the guidelines given here.
Key Elements:
(a) Statement of the Problem:
The general problem area is stated clearly and unambiguously. The importance and significance of the problem area is discussed.
(b) Statement of Causal Relationship:
The cause-effect relationship to be studied is stated clearly and is sensibly related to the problem area.
(c) Statement of Constructs:
Each key construct in the research/evaluation project is explained (minimally, both the cause and effect). The explanations are readily understandable (i.e., jargon-free) to an intelligent reader.
(d) Literature Citations and Review:
The literature cited is from reputable and appropriate sources (e.g., professional journals, books and not Time, Newsweek, etc.) and you have a minimum of five references. The literature is condensed in an intelligent fashion with only the most relevant information included. Citations are in the correct format.
(e) Statement of Hypothesis:
The hypothesis (or hypotheses) is clearly stated and is specific about what is predicted. The relationship of the hypothesis to both the problem statement and literature review is readily understood from reading the texts.
Technical Methods for Writing a Research Report:
i. Sample Section:
Sampling Procedure Specifications: The procedure for selecting units (e.g., subjects, records) for the study is described and is appropriate. The author state which sampling method is used and why. The population and sampling frame are described. In an evaluation, the programme participants are frequently self-selected (i.e., volunteers) and, if so, should be described as such.
ii. Sample Description:
The sample is described accurately and is appropriate. Problems in contacting and measuring the sample are anticipated.
iii. External Validity Considerations:
Generalizability from the sample to the sampling frame and population is considered.
iv. Measurement Section:
Each outcome measurement construct is described briefly (a minimum of two outcome constructs is required). For each construct, the measure or measures are described briefly and an appropriate citation and reference is included (unless you created the measure).
You describe briefly the measure you constructed and provide the entire measure in an Appendix. The measures, which are used, are relevant to the hypotheses of the study and are included in those hypotheses. Wherever possible, multiple measures of the same construct are used.
Construction of Measures: For questionnaires, tests and interviews: questions are clearly worded, specific, appropriate for the population, and follow in a logical fashion.
The standards for good questions are followed:
For Archival Data:
Original data collection procedures are adequately described and indices (i.e., combinations of individual measures) are constructed correctly. For scales, you must describe briefly which scaling procedure you used and how you implemented it. For qualitative measures, the procedures for collecting the measures are described in detail.
Reliability and Validity: You must address both the reliability and validity of all of your measures. For reliability, you must specify what estimation procedure(s) you used. For validity, you must explain how you assessed construct validity. Wherever possible, you should minimally address both convergent and discriminate validity. The procedures, which are used to examine reliability and validity, are appropriate for the measures.
Design and Procedures Section:
i. Design:
The design is clearly presented in both notational and text form. The design is appropriate for the problem and addresses the hypothesis.
ii. Internal Validity:
Threats to internal validity and how they are addressed by the design are discussed. Any threats to internal validity, which are not well controlled, are also considered.
iii. Description of Procedures:
An overview of how the study will be conducted is included. The sequence of events is described and is appropriate to the design. Sufficient information is included so that a reader could replicate the essential features of the study.
Results:
(i) Statement of Results:
The results are stated concisely and are plausible for the research described.
(ii) Tables:
The table(s) is correctly formatted and accurately and concisely presents part of the analysis.
(iii) Figures:
The figure(s) is clearly designed and accurately de; tribes a relevant aspect of the results.
Conclusions, Abstract and Reference Sections:
Implications of the Study:
Assuming the expected results are obtained, the implications of these results are discussed. The author mentions briefly any remaining problems, which are anticipated in the study.
Abstract:
The abstract is 250 words or less and presents a concise picture of the proposed research. Major constructs and hypotheses are included. The abstract is the first section of the paper.
References:
All citations are included in the correct format and are appropriate for the study described.
Stylistic Elements:
(a) Professional Writing:
First person and text-stereotyped forms are avoided. Material is presented in an unbiased and unemotional (e.g., no feelings about things), but not necessarily uninteresting, fashion.
(b) Parallel Construction:
Tense is kept parallel within and between sentences (as appropriate).
(c) Sentence Structure:
Sentence structure and punctuation are correct. Incomplete and run-on sentences are avoided.
(d) Spelling and word Usage:
Spelling and use of words are appropriate. Words are capitalized and abbreviated correctly.
(e) General Style:
The document is neatly produced and reads well. The format for the document has been correctly followed.
(f) Formatting:
Need to check the specific formatting guidelines for the report you are writing.
(g) Booklet format and Printing Procedures:
Print the survey booklet on 81/2 × 11 paper. Place no questions on the front or back pages. The survey pages should be printed using a high quality laser printer on white or off-white paper.
Ordering the Questions:
(A) Questions are Ordered According to Social Usefulness or Importance:
Those which people are most likely to see as useful come first and those least useful come last. Group questions those are similar in content. Establish a flow of responding from one question to the next. Questions in any topic area that is most likely to be objectionable to respondents should be positioned after the less objectionable ones. Demographic questions are usually placed at the beginning or at the end.
The first question is the most important. The first question should be clearly related to the survey topic and should be easy to answer. The first question should convey a sense of neutrality. The first question should be clearly applicable and interesting to everyone.
(b) Formatting the Pages:
Use lower case letters for questions, upper case for answers. Identify answer categories on left with numbers this allow pre-coding of responses. Establish a vertical flow.
The purpose of vertical flow is to prevent inadvertent omissions, something that occurs often when respondents are required to move back and forth across a page with their answers. Vertical flow also prevents the common error of checking the space on the wrong side of the answers when answer categories are placed beside one another. Also, vertical flow enhances feelings of accomplishment.
The need to provide clear directions is extremely important. Use the same marking procedure throughout the survey. Directions for answering are always distinguished from the questions by putting them in parentheses.
(c) Items in a Series:
Repeat the scale for each item. Ask one question at a time. The respondent should only be asked to do one thing at a time. The problem of asking two questions is that each request interferes with the other.
(d) Use Words for Answer Choices:
Show a connection between items and answers. Use multiple column technique to conserve space. Show how to skip screening questions. Make questions fit each page. Use transitions for continuity— for example, when a new line of questioning starts, when a new page starts or to break up the monotony of a long series of questions on a single topic. Transitions must also fit the situation. It is also useful to distinguish between major and minor transitions.
(e) Designing the Covers:
The front cover receives the greatest attention and contains:
(i) A study title.
(ii) A graphic illustration.
(iii) Any needed directions, and
(iv) The name and address of the study sponsor.
The title should sound interesting. Subtitles are often useful. Use graphic illustrations. The return address does not include the name of the researcher. The goal- is to have the respondent view the Researcher as an intermediary between the respondent and the accomplishment the back cover should consist of an invitation to make additional comments, a thank you and plenty of white space.
Precautions for Writing Research Reports:
Research report is a channel of communicating the research evaluating to the researchers of the report. A good research report is one which does this task efficiently and effectively.
As such it must be prepared keeping the following precautions in view are given below:
1. Abstract terminology and technical Targon should be avoided in a research report. The report should be able to convey the matter as simply as possible.
2. A research report should not, if this can be avoided be dull, it should be such as to sustain researchers interest.
3. Readers are often interested in acquiring a quick knowledge of main evaluating and as such the report must be provide a ready availability of the findings.
4. The report must present the logical analysis of the subject matter. It must reflect a structure wherein the various pieces of analysis relating to the research problem fit well.
5. Appendices should be enlisted in respect of all the technical data in the report.
6. Bibliography of sources consulted in a must for a good report and must necessarily given.
7. Report must be attractive in appearance, neat and clean, whether typed or printed.
8. Objective of the study, the nature of the problem, the methods employed and analysis techniques adopted must be clearly stated in the beginning of the report in the form of introduction.